Traditional Gender Role Beliefs Research Articles

First‐Generation Female Professors from Low‐Income Families in Pakistan: The Influence of Parents on Access to and Involvement in Higher Education

This paper presents findings of qualitative analysis of female professors' views about the role of their parents' attitudes and family backgrounds in shaping their access to and participation in university education in Pakistan. Structural barriers in the form of lack of education, in particular, high education facilities and opportunities were linked to disadvantaged rural places of residence and geographical inequities, whereas parental values of believing in the importance of gaining professional education were commonly highlighted across the sample. Similarly, the family culture of encouraging and supporting children's education, and parental role in overcoming barriers in gaining access to university education were more likely reported than traditional gender role beliefs and gendered practices. Additionally, parents' positive and reinforcing attitudes toward their daughters' education played a mediating role in shaping study participants' academic dispositions and agencies that lead to their academic and career success. The analysis revealed that parents' positive educational values, encouraging attitudes, and supportive behaviors for their daughters were embedded in parents' personal histories and experiences of deprived status in education and occupational attainments.

Gender Qualities and Campus Bullying: Psychological Causes and Social Ecology Behind the Rose Boy

In April 2000, "Rose Boy" Ye Yongzhi died due to bullying by his classmates for his unique gender identity. Although the Ye Yongzhi incident has drawn increasing attention to the seriousness of gender identity discrimination and campus bullying, the phenomenon of "gender bullying" still exists today. In this study, the author conducted a questionnaire survey of 100 male youths in mainland China who had experienced or were currently experiencing campus bullying to clarify the current status of campus bullying and gender bullying in mainland China, and conducted statistics on the forms, reasons, solutions, and impacts of bullying. On this basis, this paper adopts a social-psychological perspective to explore the social psychological causes behind "gender temperament bullying". On the one hand, adolescents may develop stereotypes about gender temperament due to prejudice. On the other hand, adolescents may exhibit irrational group behavior under the influence of "deindividuation". In addition, "obeying authority" is also one of the reasons why some teenagers join the ranks of bullies. Finally, this paper elaborates on the deeper macro-social ecology behind social psychology, such as the influence of traditional gender role beliefs on parents' expectations and requirements for their children in traditional Chinese families; most schools in China fail to provide comprehensive and scientific gender education courses, lacking in-depth exploration and correct guidance on gender issues; the administrative and judicial departments have not sufficiently punished and prevented campus bullying; the whole society's attention to campus bullying and gender discrimination also needs to be improved.

Sexual Identity Development and Social Ecological Facilitators and Barriers of PrEP Uptake and Adherence Among Latinx Men Who Have Sex with Men.

Latinx gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (LMSM) report lower pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use than their white, non-Latinx counterparts. We hypothesize that this disparity is partially attributable to social ecological factors that can be addressed via prevention interventions. In this retrospective study, we first examined data from 253 LMSM to determine whether theorized associations existed between acquisition of a PrEP prescription (uptake) in relation to several social ecological factors based on a conceptual framework of determinants of access to and uptake of PrEP for LMSM. We also explored relations between frequency of PrEP use (adherence) and social ecological factors with a subsample of 33 LMSM who had initiated PrEP 12months prior to assessment. In this study, individual-level factors from this framework included age and socioeconomic status. Perceived access to medical care represented both individual- and community-level determinants of PrEP uptake and adherence. Interpersonal-level factors were social support and relationship status. Structural/cultural-level factors were sexual identity development status, the masculinity norm of heterosexual self-presentation, traditional Latinx masculine gender role beliefs of machismo and caballerismo, racial identity, and immigration status. Results indicated that older men and those who endorsed the synthesis/integration status of sexual identity development were more likely to acquire a PrEP prescription during their lifetime in comparison to peers. PrEP adherence was linked with being older, reporting higher socioeconomic status, reporting more appraisal social support, self-identifying as white-Latinx, being U.S.-born, and endorsing less sexual identity uncertainty and more heterosexual self-presentation. Results specify modifiable factors that may inform tailored, community-based prevention efforts to increase PrEP use and decrease existing HIV/AIDS disparities among LMSM.

Do Traditional Gender Role Beliefs Promote Abstinence and Sexual Health Behaviors Among Latina College Students?

Traditional gender role beliefs, or marianismo beliefs, are theorized to be largely protective against health risk behaviors, including sexual risk behaviors among Latina young adults. However, measurement differences across studies and research with heterogeneous samples of abstinent and sexually active Latina young adults have led to unclear findings. Thus, we investigated whether endorsement of certain marianismo beliefs may promote sexual health behaviors or solely promote abstinence. Guided by gender role schema theory, this study investigated the multidimensional construct of marianismo beliefs in relation to past-year abstinence from sexual activity, STI and HIV testing, and condom use among 611 Latina young adults. Results indicated that endorsement of the Virtuous and Chaste belief was associated with decreased odds of sexual activity (i.e., increased odds of being abstinent) in the past year. None of the five marianismo beliefs were significantly linked with condom use. Among sexually active participants, the Virtuous and Chaste belief was associated with decreased likelihood to be tested for both STIs and HIV in the past year. Findings support the notion that certain marianismo beliefs (e.g., the Virtuous and Chaste belief) may promote abstinence, yet pose a risk for sexual health via reduced likelihood for STI and HIV testing. Results may inform culturally-tailored HIV prevention interventions with Latinas to reduce the disproportionate HIV burden in this population.

Are there gender differences in promotion-prevention self-regulatory focus?

The purpose of this research is to examine gender differences in promotion/prevention self-regulatory focus, a dispositional motivational orientation with major implications for human functioning. First, a review of literature using social cognitive theory as a framework suggests that, driven by socialization processes, (1) women may on average be more prevention focused than men - meaning more vigilant to maintain a secure status quo, whereas (2) men may on average be more promotion focused than women - meaning more eager to advance to a better situation than their status quo. Second, we provide data to examine these possible gender differences in self-regulatory focus with secondary analyses of (a) our own existing data on dispositional regulatory focus and of (b) a large scale, representative panel study (LISS Survey). The data suggest a highly consistent difference with women being more prevention focused than men, while the difference in promotion focus is much smaller and is only found in European samples. Auxiliary data suggest promotion-focused women hold less traditional gender role beliefs as well as showing that regulatory focus partially explains examples of behavioural differences between men and women. The analysis of gender difference in regulatory focus sheds new light on gender differences and biases already known, and on regulatory focus, and as such opens up many new and important areas of future inquiry.

Gender role beliefs and adolescent pregnancy in Colombia: findings from the 2015 DHS survey

This study investigated the association between gender role beliefs and the prevalence and likelihood of experiencing pregnancy among 8525 young women and girls aged 13–19 years in Colombia. The primary outcome of interest was adolescent pregnancy. Retrospective cross-sectional analysis utilised data from the 2015 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) in Colombia, which included an add-on questionnaire on gender relations. Our analysis measured both pregnancy prevalence and pregnancy likelihood in relation to gender role beliefs. With one exception, young women who disagreed with traditionally conforming gender roles had a lower prevalence of pregnancy and were less likely to experience pregnancy than those who agreed with them. The highest likelihood of pregnancy prevalence and likelihood was found among those who agreed with statements suggesting male dominance and those who agreed with women’s homemaking responsibilities. The greater the adherence to traditionally conforming gender role beliefs, the higher the likelihood of experiencing pregnancy during adolescence. Girls’ and young women’s adherence to traditional gender role beliefs appeared to be a risk factor for adolescent pregnancy. Our findings support Colombia’s current sex education policies and practices within the framework of gender equity, and evidence the link between gender equity and girls’ and young women’s reproductive health.

Gender Role Beliefs and Ontologization of Mothers: A Moderated Mediation Analysis

This study combines insights from gender studies and studies on dehumanization to show how gender role beliefs influence attitudes and the attribution of ontologization traits to mothers. A convenience sample of 194 Italian participants read one of three vignettes describing a mother (a heterosexual biological mother, a heterosexual stepmother, or a lesbian stepmother) and her five-year-old son during a moment of disagreement. Participants assessed the depicted mother’s competence and attributed ontologization traits (human and animal traits) to the same mother. Focal differences were found in the perception of competence that was attributed more to the heterosexual biological mother than to the other targets. A full ontologization process was not observed. However, differences were found in the attribution of animal traits, which were attributed more to the depicted heterosexual stepmother than to the other ones. Moderated mediation analyses also showed that participants endorsing moderate and high levels of traditional gender role beliefs rated the heterosexual stepmother as being less competent compared with the heterosexual biological mother by animalizing her. Gendered expectations concerning mothers’ role and parenting can create multiple barriers for women who are—or intend to be—mothers. Attitudinal change should be fostered so that all mothers’ identities and experiences are fully accepted.

Alcohol, gender, and violence: Factors influencing blame for partner aggression.

Alcohol use has been associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) and reduced perpetrator blameworthiness, but this finding is not universal. Researchers examining alcohol and IPV-related blame often utilize vignettes depicting perpetrators who are sober and compare this to perpetrators depicted as more or less intoxicated. In this study, participants read one of three vignettes depicting male-to-female physical IPV. We compared participants' blame attributions across three conditions: perpetrator sober, perpetrator intoxicated-infrequent drinker, and perpetrator intoxicated-frequent drinker. Alcohol did not mitigate perpetrator blameworthiness for the assault; however, only the intoxicated-frequent drinker was rated as more blameworthy for his violence than the sober perpetrator. Participants also reported their own IPV perpetration, drinking behaviors, and gender role beliefs. Traditional gender role beliefs and a history of IPV perpetration were associated with shifting some of the blame onto the victim, and this was true for both men and women, especially when the perpetrator was described as a frequent drinker. Researchers should consider whether their alcohol vignettes might depict a behavior as reflecting the situation or the drinker's character, as this may impact their results. Furthermore, different observer characteristics may differentially predict blame attribution.

Depression, Anxiety, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Following Intimate Partner Violence: The Role of Self-Criticism, Guilt, and Gender Beliefs.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) predicts anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), yet the role of cognition in these pathways is poorly understood. This study explored whether self-criticism, guilt, and gender beliefs predicted psychological symptoms, using self-report data from 50 Colombian female IPV survivors with diverse socioeconomic statuses. Self-criticism and guilt were high and significantly associated with IPV. Self-criticism significantly predicted depression and PTSD, whilst only guilt predicted anxiety. Traditional gender role beliefs were associated with emotional abuse, but not with self-criticism, guilt, or symptoms. In conclusion, self-criticism and guilt are important treatment targets for female IPV survivors, regardless of gender beliefs.

Religious Schools, Home Schools, and Gender-Role Beliefs in Adulthood

Background When parents in the United States choose to send their children to religious schools or to home school, they are often motivated, at least in part, by a desire to transmit religious beliefs to their children. These religious beliefs may in some cases promote traditional gender roles that are built into religious tenets, practices, and subcultural identities. Purpose With this in mind, we examine whether religious schools act as distinct sites of religious gender socialization by considering the following questions: (1) do Americans who attend religious high schools and homeschools hold more conservative gender-role beliefs later in life compared to their public school peers? and (2) does attending a religious school have a differential effect on gender beliefs for men or women? Methods We use data from the Cardus Education Study—the largest nationally representative survey that includes religious high school and home school graduates as well as measures of religiosity—and logistic regression to explore the gender-role beliefs of 24–39 year olds who graduated from conservative Protestant, Catholic, public, and home schools. Results Graduates of the different religious school sectors we examined varied in their tendencies to hold more traditional gender-role beliefs. Specifically, we find that graduates of conservative Protestant schools and home schools held more conservative gender-role beliefs than graduates of other sectors. In contrast, Catholic school graduates—particularly female graduates—held more egalitarian beliefs compared to the other sectors. Conclusions and Implications In light of these findings, we discuss potential mechanisms within school environments that may contribute to the enactment of gender and religion. We extend empirical and theoretical knowledge about gender socialization, an area of critical importance given its ability to influence people's aspirations, choices, and life outcomes as well as social norms and policies.

Attitudes toward “Non-Traditional” Mothers: Examining the Antecedents of Mothers’ Competence Perceptions

Mothers are the protagonists in a widespread narrative that emphasizes motherhood as prolonged and exclusive attention to children, accompanied by references to natural competence in child-rearing skills. The present research aimed to investigate the linking mechanisms and conditional processes underlying the perception of mothers’ competence. Cisgender heterosexual Italian participants (N = 230) read one of four vignettes describing a situation in which a mother (i.e., heterosexual biological mother, heterosexual stepmothers, lesbian stepmother, and lesbian biological mother) interacts with her two children who had misbehaved. After reading the vignette, the participants rated the depicted mother’s competence and to what extent the children’s misbehaviour was attributable to the mother. Moderated-mediation analyses indicated that all the non-traditional mothers were perceived as being less competent compared to the heterosexual biological mother, by giving them greater responsibility for their children’s misbehaviour, among participants with medium–high levels of traditional gender-role beliefs. Sexual orientation and biology relatedness were not cumulative variables, but intersecting categories creating a unique way to perceive mothers. As the number of non-traditional families grows, negative societal attitudes toward non-traditional parents and their children should be increasingly considered.

Racial and gender discrimination by teachers: Risks for Black girls' depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation.

The present study examines how race and gender-specific factors (i.e., racial centrality and gender role beliefs) serve as protective assets against the harmful impact of racial and gender discrimination on depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation for Black girls. Our sample included 232 Black girls ages 15-17 years old (Mage = 16.85) from a socioeconomically diverse community context. Our findings revealed that racial and gender discrimination from teachers was associated with higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Perceived gender discrimination by teachers and endorsing traditional gender role beliefs were associated with higher reports of suicidal ideation. Perceiving higher instances of racial discrimination from teachers and reporting lower levels of racial centrality were associated with higher depressive symptomatology. The findings suggest the need to create safe spaces and to consider the interactions that occur in school settings that impact the mental health of Black girls. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A social cognitive perspective on gender disparities in self-efficacy, interest, and aspirations in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): the influence of cultural and gender norms

BackgroundThe underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields is well documented in developed countries, and yet public discussion of gender disparities in STEM in China is still in its nascent stage. Endorsement of traditional gender role beliefs and conformity to social norms are pertinent to Chinese culture, which may even exacerbate the gender disparities in STEM engagement. Grounded in social cognitive career theory, the present study drew on a national sample of secondary school students (N = 3020) in China to estimate gender disparities in self-efficacy, interest, and aspirations in STEM and examine how cultural and gender norms influence STEM engagement.ResultsThe proposed sequential mediation model was supported, in which girls were more likely to show lower levels of self-efficacy than boys; this was associated with lower interest in STEM and lower motivation to pursue STEM careers. The results also supported the moderating effect of traditional gender role beliefs and found that gender differences in self-efficacy, interest, and aspirations in STEM were more apparent among students who strongly endorsed stereotypical views of male and female roles.ConclusionsThe findings provide important implications for efforts to improve girls’ access to STEM education through curriculum enrichment and out-of-school time programs to bridge the gender gap in STEM. Access to female role models and gender-responsive pedagogy is also essential to boost girls’ self-efficacy in STEM and eradicate traditional gender role beliefs among all students.

Changing Family Styles in China: The Influence of Traditional Media and Internet Use on the Acceptance of Premarital Cohabitation

This study aims to explore the relationship between media use and Chinese residents’ attitudes toward acceptance of premarital cohabitation (AAPC). We collected data from a national Chinese survey (N = 10,968). The results demonstrated that greater traditional media use was associated with worse AAPC, whereas Internet use was associated with better AAPC. We also found that individualistic orientation could mediate the relationship between traditional media and Internet use and AAPC. Traditional gender role beliefs showed disparate moderating roles in the influence of traditional media and internet use on AAPC. The implications for family therapy practice were discussed.

Why men don’t say no: sexual compliance and gender socialization in heterosexual men

ABSTRACT Given that the prevailing literature largely neglects the unwanted sexual activity experiences of men, this study examined both prevalence and predictors of men’s compliance with unwanted, but consensual, sexual activity. Specifically, we examined whether traditional gender-role endorsement, belief in male sexuality stereotypes, and age predict sexual compliance among heterosexual men. Participants (N = 426 men) completed a brief demographic questionnaire, measures of gender-role beliefs and male sexuality stereotypes, as well as a modified measure investigating motives for consenting to unwanted kissing, sexual touching, oral sex, and/or penetrative sex. The reported incidence rate of mild sexual compliance (i.e. consenting to unwanted kissing at least once) in heterosexual men was 61.3% over the past 12 months. Results suggest that sexual compliance in heterosexual men may be predicted by their endorsement of traditional gender-role beliefs and male sexuality stereotypes. Moreover, men may be motivated to be sexually compliant due to motives of altruism, intoxication, sexual inexperience, peer pressure, popularity, and sex-role concerns.

Women’s Participation in Governance and Political Processes in Kenya: Threats and Proposed Remedies

The most recent studies on women’s political participation demonstrate that women are consistently denied adequate space and a level playing field to participate in politics and governance, especially in many global south countries, unlike their male counterparts. These studies’ most dominant claim is that these contexts’ patriarchal cultural norms mainly limit women’s central involvement in such nations’ political processes. Based on this impediment system, it follows that these environments become more unpropitious, hostile, and insecure for women in politics, which opens up and perpetuates possibilities for all manner of harm to them. Because of such threats, several scholars, religious leaders, and women activists decry the underrepresentation of women in politics, which in their understanding, has contributed to prolonged systemic discrimination through a legacy of insufficient woman-centric legislation and policy interventions. There is a consensus-based claim among the majority of these actors that this kind of inadequacy continues unabated due to a siloed thinking that inhibits a joined-up approach in tackling such discrimination. This paper seeks to further explore this claim through a broad stroke integrated review of literature that deals with women’s political participation in Kenya, where the concept of traditional gender role beliefs provides a vital backdrop for conducting it. Based on this concept’s valuable terms of reference, it is concluded that women need to be accorded a more enabling environment to participate in politics and, in this way, ensure that their ascension to leadership positions in governance becomes tenable. It is anticipated that such an assumption will increase legislation, policy and other interventions geared towards safeguarding women’s general participation in politics. In light of such conclusion, it is proposed that groundswell support is needed to ensure that the creation of a conducive environment for women to be involved in politics is realized, and in this way, their disenfranchisement based on their limited participation in politics is tackled.

Traditional Gender Roles and Emotion Dysregulation as Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Among College Men

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a prevalent public health issue in the United States that affects millions of individuals each year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2019). Throughout their lifetime, 43 million women will experience psychological aggression (CDC, 2019). However, a gap in the literature on traditional gender role beliefs (TGRB) and IPV poses potential expansion on our understanding of individuals who perpetrate violence and adhere to traditional gender roles. The present study investigated whether emotion dysregulation moderated the relationship between TGRB and IPV perpetration among 132 undergraduate men. We hypothesized that TGRB would positively associate with psychological and physical IPV perpetration among men with high, but not low, emotion dysregulation. TGRB positively associated with psychological IPV among men with high and average, but not low, emotion dysregulation. Emotion dysregulation, but not TGRB, positively related to physical IPV perpetration. Results suggest that emotion dysregulation may be an important target for college IPV interventions, particularly for men who endorse TGRB.

Individual factors and cisgender college students' attitudes and behaviors toward transgender individuals.

The present study is one of few to investigate both anti-trans discrimination and anti-trans prejudice. It examined four individual factors (religiosity; political beliefs; affiliation with LGBTQ [lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer] people; gender role beliefs) through a lens of hetero-cis-normativity to understand their association with anti-trans attitudes and reported behaviors. Using a sample of 302 cisgender college students from across the United States, hierarchical multiple regressions on bootstrap samples were used to analyze how these factors are associated with anti-trans attitudes and behaviors. More liberal political beliefs, affiliation with more LGBTQ friends and family members, and less traditional gender role beliefs were related to more positive attitudes toward transgender people. Less traditional gender role beliefs and more positive attitudes were associated with more positive reported behaviors toward transgender individuals. Interventions designed to challenge traditional gender role beliefs and approximate affiliation with LGBTQ persons may be most effective to reduce pervasive hetero-cis-normative prejudice and discrimination within schools.

Synergistic and additive effects of social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism on attitudes toward socially stigmatized groups

Research has consistently linked social dominance orientation (SDO) and right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) to numerous forms of prejudice, but little research has examined how these personality and ideological variables interact in their associations with various attitudinal outcomes. The present study explored the interactions of SDO and RWA in predicting a wide range of social attitudes (i.e., modern racism, modern sexism, traditional gender role beliefs) and feeling thermometers toward racial/ethnic minorities, women, and other socially stigmatized groups in a cross-sectional survey of 1244 U.S. college students (Mage = 21.54; SD = 5.17). Moderation analyses found significant independent associations of SDO, RWA, or both with all attitudinal or ideological outcome variables. We found a hypothesized synergistic interaction of SDO x RWA in predicting attitudes toward women scores, but the results did not support other hypothesized SDO x RWA interactions. Findings provide further support of the Dual Process Model and suggest that SDO and RWA may employ largely independent pathways in predicting attitudes toward marginalized groups.

How individual gender role beliefs, organizational gender norms, and national gender norms predict parents’ work-Family guilt in Europe

ABSTRACT The guilt that mothers feel about the time and energy that they invest in work instead of their family is often proposed to be an important reason for why mothers ‘opt-out’ the career track. We sought to understand if mothers indeed experience more work-family guilt than fathers and how this relates to both their own gender role beliefs and organizational gender norms across nine European countries. Analyses draw on the European Social Workforce Survey, with data from 2619 working parents nested in 110 organizations in 9 European countries. Results showed that when fathers and mothers work more than a full-time week (a) fathers with traditional gender role beliefs felt less guilty, and (b) especially mothers working in an organization with low support for the parent role of working fathers felt guilty. Explorative analyses showed no effect of national gender norms on gender differences in guilt. Our results are beneficial for organizations and policy makers by showing that guilt in working mothers can be reduced by developing egalitarian organizational norms, in which there is support for the parent role of mothers and fathers, potentially helping mothers to focus on their careers alongside their families.